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===== Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) =====

===== Biography =====

Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner, born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, was a prominent American psychologist and innovator. Initially aspiring to be a writer, Skinner's interests shifted to psychology after being exposed to the works of [[Jacques Loab]], [[Ivan Pavlov]], and [[John B. Watson]], as well as [[Bertrand Russell]]. He pursued a PhD at Harvard, where he developed his theory of operant conditioning, building upon the ideas of Edward Thorndike and John Watson.

Skinner's key contributions to psychology and education include his theory of operant conditioning, which has had a lasting impact on educational practices and behavioral therapies. His work in behaviorism, particularly in the area of applied behavior analysis, has influenced the development of therapeutic interventions for various behavioral disorders. Additionally, Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior has been beneficial for children with autism.

In the field of education, Skinner's impact is evident in the application of his theories to classroom management, such as the use of token economy, preferred activity time, and assertive discipline theory. His influence on educational technology and the use of behavioral principles in instructional design is also noteworthy.

Skinner's legacy continues to shape the fields of psychology and education, despite facing criticisms and controversies. His work remains influential, and his theories are still referenced and utilized in various settings.

===== Key Contributions =====

==== Theory of Operant Conditioning ====

The theory of operant conditioning is a psychological concept that involves changing behavior through the use of reinforcement or punishment. Unlike classical conditioning, which involves the association of stimuli with involuntary responses, operant conditioning focuses on the relationship between behavior and its consequences. In operant conditioning, behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the positive or negative consequences that follow them.

Skinner expanded on the work of [[Edward Thorndike]] and [[John B. Watson]], building upon the ideas of stimulus and response. Skinner's early training in linguistics also influenced his work, particularly in the study of language acquisition and behavior.

Skinner's research involved the use of animals, particularly rats and pigeons, to observe and measure behavior in response to positive and negative reinforcements. He developed the concept of the [["Skinner Box"]], a controlled environment in which he could manipulate stimuli to study the effects on behavior. Through his experiments, Skinner identified key principles of operant conditioning, including reinforcement, extinction, punishment, and discrimination.

==== Radical Behaviorism ====

Skinner's contributions to radical behaviorism include the development of the idea that all human behavior is driven by both behavior and the environment. He emphasized the importance of the interaction between an individual's behavior and their environment, considering it to be the most significant factor. Skinner also investigated the concept of private events, arguing that they are no different from public-facing behavior. He suggested that private events may be distinguished by limited accessibility but not by any special nature or structure. This approach to radical behaviorism has faced criticisms but has continued to grow and flourish over the years, providing fundamental knowledge for behavior modification and therapy.

==== The Concept of Teaching Machine ====

Skinner introduced the concept of the teaching machine, which involved a mechanical device that presented learners with specific problems to solve. Upon entering the correct answer, the machine would provide positive reinforcement, such as a ringing bell, and present the next problem. Failure to solve the problem would result in additional material being provided to the student. The teaching machine aimed to break down educational material into smaller, manageable steps and provide immediate feedback based on the learner's responses. Skinner believed that this approach could free up time for teachers to develop individualized behavioral outcomes for each student. The teaching machine's principles continue to influence instructional software programs, which adapt responses based on the learner's behaviors. This concept can be positioned as the foundation of modern Edtech. 


==== The Concept of Token Economy ====

The concept of token economy is a classroom management approach that involves the use of a point system or currency to reinforce positive behaviors and discourage negative behaviors. In this approach, students can earn tokens or points for displaying desired behaviors, such as following instructions, completing assignments, or demonstrating good behavior. These tokens can then be exchanged for rewards, privileges, or other incentives.

Token economy is applied in classroom management by providing a structured system for reinforcing positive behaviors. Teachers can establish clear expectations for behavior and use the token economy to reward students for meeting these expectations. This approach can be implemented on an individual basis, where each student earns tokens independently, or in a whole-class setting, where the entire class works towards earning tokens collectively.

Teachers may create creative ways to implement token economies, such as setting up a classroom store where students can use their tokens to purchase rewards, organizing class-wide rewards for reaching a certain token count, or allowing students to exchange tokens for privileges like extra recess time or choosing a classroom activity.

While token economy can be an effective classroom management tool, some concerns have been raised, such as the potential for a decrease in intrinsic motivation among students and an overreliance on the tokens as a means of control.

==== Skinner's Works ====

  * Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.
  * Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Prentice-Hall. https://doi.org/10.1037/11256-000
  * Skinner, B. F. (1972). A lecture on “having” a poem. In B. F. Skinner (Ed.), Cumulative record (3rd ed., pp. 345–355). Appleton-Century-Crofts.
  * Skinner, B. F. (1976). Particulars of my life. Knopf.
  * Skinner, B. F. (1983). A matter of consequence. Knopf.