thor whose work over more than five decades made "thinking" a teachable subject in its own right and introdu... in twentieth-century cognitive practice: *lateral thinking* and *parallel thinking*. Born in Malta in 1933, de Bono came from a family in which, by his own account, t... r corporations and governments, and established a thinking institute in Malta. He coined the term "lateral t
"zero" was known about the processes of artistic thinking and learning, and that they deserved systematic e... lic Schools and the Educational Testing Service), thinking dispositions (the Visible Thinking programme developed with David Perkins), understanding for transfer, and... nalogies, and reveal the complex texture of one's thinking — has become one of the most influential framewor
heory and practice — left permanent traces in his thinking as a reformer of dualisms. After teaching at the ... l consequences. If knowledge is instrumental — if thinking exists to guide action and action tests the value... ds-on activity; it is more precisely a claim that thinking and doing are not separable — that the mind devel... //. University of Chicago Press.
==== Reflective Thinking and the Inquiry Model of Pedagogy ====
Running t
934 at the age of thirty-seven. His major work, //Thinking and Speech// (//Myshlenie i rech'//), was publish... nteraction with others — has reshaped educational thinking about collaboration, dialogue, and the social org... ality of classroom talk shapes the development of thinking.
* Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). //Mind in Society: ... ationship Between Thought and Language ====
In //Thinking and Speech// (1934), Vygotsky addressed one of th
n on adults' — and it underpins much contemporary thinking about children's rights, parental authority, and ... Not What to Think: Liberal Education and Critical Thinking ====
Because Mill was acutely aware that educati... ovides individuals with the tools and methods for thinking — what today's educators call critical thinking skills — and allows them to determine their own views indep
uction phase is designed to stimulate **divergent thinking** — the uninhibited generation of multiple lines ... between these types — an exercise in **convergent thinking** that sharpens awareness of the different kinds ... ** component, in which students examine their own thinking process and what they have learned about how to a... result is a technique that trains three modes of thinking — divergent, convergent, and metacognitive — simu
ccount of the educational journey that shaped his thinking, and his 2025 book //Mastery: Why Deeper Learning... r credentialled, lacked the capacity for critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, and initiative that... ional schooling. These seven skills are: critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration across network... h require the people involved to change their own thinking and behaviour), and it provided a framework of di
lly grounding the concept of **formal operational thinking** — the fourth and most abstract stage of Piaget'... logique de l'adolescent// (The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence, 1955, published in... icant because it moved the analysis of children's thinking closer to the actual observable behaviour of chil... sitaires de France. [Eng: //The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence//, 1958, Basic Book
cognized as one of the pioneers of Black feminist thinking, with a focus on issues of race, gender, class, a... sibility where individuals can engage in critical thinking, self-reflection, and dialogue to challenge oppre... 39, 382–388.
* Hooks, B. (1989). Talking back: Thinking feminist, thinking black (Vol. 10). South End Press.
* Hooks, B. (1992). The oppositional gaze: Black fem
to any topic in any subject. They define critical thinking as a set of practices rather than as a body of in... s matter important? Out of everything we could be thinking about, why this?
* Meier, D. (1995). The power... . Following Dewey, Meier has argued that critical thinking should not be reserved for economic opportunity b... ems — and noticing how often he was penalized for thinking too carefully — convinced her that standardized i
resent.
==== Critical Philosophy and Independent Thinking ====
Kant is widely credited with having laid the philosophical foundation for critical thinking in formal education through his Critical Philosop... nce in our knowledge." His desire for independent thinking among his students manifested in his push for log... -formation occurred. Kant's vision of students as thinking beings capable of exercising right judgment, and
dred hands, a hundred thoughts, a hundred ways of thinking, playing, speaking. This was not a sentimental or... veral purposes simultaneously: it made children's thinking visible to themselves and to their parents, creat... that genuinely matter to them, observe their own thinking, and document their discoveries.
==== The Enviro... ildren that their presence, their work, and their thinking are valued and taken seriously. Every space in th
not from instinct or external authority but from thinking that is conscious of itself. For Steiner, knowled... n reality. This epistemological conviction — that thinking is itself a spiritual activity and the organ thro... ence. In the third stage (ages 14–21), conceptual thinking awakens and students are ready for abstract reaso... etimes summarised as the cultivation of //head// (thinking), //heart// (feeling), and //hands// (willing) —
effectiveness of rational discourse and to binary thinking (the oppressed/the oppressors) and silences aroun... m.
* Giroux, H. A. (1978). Writing and critical thinking in the social studies. //Curriculum Inquiry//, 8(... 9.
* Giroux, H. A. (1978). Writing and critical thinking in the social studies. //Curriculum Inquiry//, 8(
Bruner had already, in his 1956 book //A Study of Thinking// (with Jacqueline Goodnow and George Austin), de... dnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). //A Study of Thinking//. Wiley.
* Bruner, J. S. (1983). //In Search o... dnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). //A Study of Thinking//. Wiley.
* Bruner, J. S. (1960). //The Process
