tween 1960 and 1983, current expenditures on U.S. schooling rose by 135 percent in real terms and pupil-teach... se the quality of cognitive skills — not years of schooling — was what drove economic growth. Across landmark... reframed how economists and policymakers analyze schooling. By introducing achievement both at entry and exi... from those arising from families, peers, or prior schooling. The resulting finding — replicated many times si
n educational reformer who sought to align public schooling with the demands of a new democratic republic. Bo... nal writings continue to inform debates on public schooling, curriculum reform, and the civic purposes of hig... ferson's thought is the linkage he forged between schooling and citizenship. Jefferson argued that "if a nati... ia, he listed six civic objectives for elementary schooling, including the ability to transact business, impr
nsparing understanding of what it feels like when schooling fails to engage the intelligence and aspirations ... oposal for the comprehensive redesign of American schooling that also became a widely screened documentary fi... the most pressing challenges facing contemporary schooling.
===== Key Contributions =====
==== The Global ... and most systematically neglected by conventional schooling. These seven skills are: critical thinking and pr
ut fear or oppression. His work inspired the free schooling movement in the USA and continues to influence ed... focus on obedience and conformity in traditional schooling, arguing that it stifles individuality and creati... at Summerhill and his writings inspired the free schooling movement in the USA during the 1960s and 1970s. H... nts in their teaching practices.
**2. Democratic Schooling:** Neill's establishment of Summerhill as a self-
oth chronicled and altered the course of American schooling for nearly half a century. Born on July 1, 1938, ... ol Wars and the Historiography of American Public Schooling ====
Ravitch's first major scholarly contributio... the fates of immigrant and Black children in ways schooling alone could not overcome. Four years later, in *T... A glossary to decipher hypocrisy and save public schooling.
==== The Network for Public Education and the P
e and Education// (1938). Against the traditional schooling that presented knowledge as a body of already-org... -centred and subject-matter-centred approaches to schooling. Progressive educators, reacting against the rigid formalism of traditional schooling, had elevated the child's spontaneous interests a... f educational innovation in the history of modern schooling. Its name announced its guiding philosophy: educa
t narratives that historically defined inner-city schooling.
* Canada, G. (1999b). The currents of democra... arly childhood programs, elementary and secondary schooling at the Promise Academy, and college access and tr... ====
Canada brought new perspectives to charter schooling not as an ideological project but as a practical ... Freire's critique of the oppressive conditions of schooling and to bell hooks' analysis of the suppression of
ility, educational potential, and the purposes of schooling. Gardner's central argument was that intelligence... elopmental psychology, Gardner argued that formal schooling consistently produces students who can answer exa... world, other minds, and social life before formal schooling are not replaced by school learning but merely ov... ll do good work in the world is a core purpose of schooling, then education must attend not only to cognitive
eyond its conventional identification with formal schooling. Building on Bernard Bailyn's argument that educa... impoverished if it focuses only on institutional schooling) and a political one (the burden of education can... istorical practice from conventional histories of schooling was his insistence that educational institutions ... of educational discourse toward a focus on formal schooling, standardised assessment, and measurable outcomes
f 100 children through their first year of formal schooling. In 1973 she became the first female professor at... ury treated reading as a skill acquired in formal schooling through the systematic instruction of a set of di... t-achieving readers in their first year of formal schooling and provide them with intensive, individually tai... e lowest-achieving readers in their first year of schooling; the Leveled Literacy Intervention and the guided
activity. In the dominant tradition of Vietnamese schooling — shaped by both the Confucian examination cultur... nd with the ways in which conventional Vietnamese schooling disrupted this logic by prioritising the appearan... are inseparable, and that the deepest purpose of schooling is to form people capable of living freely and re... democratise and deepen the quality of Vietnamese schooling. Within contemporary Vietnamese education reform
ness to redesign the entire structure of Prussian schooling and to found the University of Berlin in 1810. He... rescribed functions.
==== The Reform of Prussian Schooling: A Three-Tier System ====
In his brief period as... dt oversaw the design of an integrated three-tier schooling system: the elementary //Volksschule// for univer... ic rights, and the cognitive costs of monolingual schooling.
==== Influence on Later Educational Thought ===
that "freedom from fear" belongs at the center of schooling. Meier studied at Antioch College in Yellow Sprin... unishment that have too often characterized urban schooling.
* Meier, D. (1995). The power of their ideas:... Shame of the nation: The restoration of apartheid schooling in America. Crown.
==== Graduation by Portfolio
ames G. Carter's vision of state-funded universal schooling; and above all Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, whose ... e passions" and should be entirely abolished from schooling; cruel and harsh punishments such as flogging wer... agenda. The standardisation and centralisation of schooling he pioneered, conceived in a relatively homogeneo
denaturalise the institutional arrangements that schooling takes for granted and to reveal the class interes... ve psychology — that knowledge acquired in formal schooling can and should transfer to out-of-school settings... s for education: if the activities distinctive of schooling do not correspond to the activities that produce
