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===== Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE) =====

===== Biography =====

Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman lawyer, statesman, orator, and philosopher whose writings on rhetoric, law, and civic life have exerted a longer continuous influence on Western education than those of almost any other ancient figure. Born in 106 BCE in Arpinum, Italy, to a wealthy but politically obscure family, Cicero was what the Romans called a novus homo — a "new man" — who rose to the consulship in 63 BCE without the benefit of aristocratic lineage. He was educated in Rome and in Greece, studying law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola, Greek philosophy under Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens, and rhetoric under Apollonius Molon at Rhodes. His defense of Sextus Roscius in 80 BCE launched a celebrated legal career, and in 63 BCE, as consul, he exposed and suppressed the Catilinarian Conspiracy, ordering the execution without trial of several patrician conspirators — an act that was celebrated at the time and used against him later. Refusing to join the First Triumvirate of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, he was driven into exile and devoted his years of political isolation to some of the most consequential philosophical writing of antiquity. After Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, Cicero delivered the Philippic orations against Mark Antony; proscribed by the Second Triumvirate, he was hunted down and killed by paid assassins in 43 BCE at the age of 63. His treatises and letters survived in unusual completeness, passing through [[saint_augustine|Saint Augustine]] to medieval Europe, through the humanists to the Reformation and the Jesuit academy, and through both the American and French revolutions to the modern curriculum in rhetoric, classics, and political theory.

===== Key Contributions =====

==== Ciceronian Rhetoric and the Rhetorical Curriculum ====

Cicero's best-known contribution to education is his body of work on rhetoric and oratory, which supplied the European school system with its basic vocabulary of eloquence for two millennia. His De Inventione, written early in his career as a student's handbook, offered the first recorded use of the term "liberal arts" and articulated his influential concept of dignitas — the personal dignity, authority, and prestige proper to a public speaker. De Partitionibus Oratoriae, framed as a catechism of rhetorical questions and answers, insisted that true eloquence required a broad education in ethics, politics, and the liberal disciplines, and adapted the Greek virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, temperance, and moderation to Roman civic life. De Optimo Genere Oratorum classified speakers by style, structure, arrangement, memory, and delivery, arguing that the true orator's task was threefold: docere, delectare, movere — to teach, delight, and move an audience. The balanced periodic sentence, the tricolon, the pairing of synonyms, and the deliberate use of anaphora that schoolmasters from the Renaissance to the twentieth century called "Ciceronian" all descend from these treatises.

**1. Docere (to teach):** The orator must first instruct the audience in the facts and reasoning of the case.

**2. Delectare (to delight):** Stylistic grace — balance, symmetry, tricolon, anaphora — holds attention and cultivates goodwill.

**3. Movere (to move):** The orator must finally move the audience to judgment and action, which requires ethical credibility as well as verbal craft.

  * Cicero, M. T. (1852). The orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero (C. D. Yonge, Trans.). G. Bell and Sons.
  * Caplan, H. (1954). Introduction. In M. T. Cicero (H. Caplan, Trans.), Rhetorica ad Herennium (pp. 1–25). Harvard University Press.
  * Hendrickson, G. L. (1926). Cicero De Optimo Genere Oratorum. The American Journal of Philology, 47(2), 109–123.
  * Costello, W. T., & Costello, S. W. T. (2013). The scholastic curriculum at early seventeenth-century Cambridge. Harvard University Press.
  * Garnsey, P. (1970). Social status and legal privilege in the Roman Empire. Clarendon Press.

==== Natural Law, Civil Society, and Republican Government ====

Cicero's political and legal treatises — De Re Publica, De Legibus, and De Officiis — reframed Greek philosophical ideas for Roman civic use and, through their later reception, supplied the working vocabulary of Western jurisprudence. De Re Publica, cast as a Socratic dialogue, identified the res publica as the property of the people, rooted in agreement on justice and shared interest, and treated law as "recta ratio," or right reason, measured by its service to the common good. De Legibus extended this account into a discussion of natural law and class conflict and sketched a reform constitution for Rome. De Officiis, written to his son, worked out a practical ethics for public life: distinguishing the honorable from the merely advantageous, insisting that promises are a matter of character rather than political convenience, and arguing that force (the lion) and fraud (the fox) are both unworthy of a human being. The Latin phrase societas civilis — coined by Cicero — became the direct ancestor of the modern concept of "civil society."

  * Cicero, M. T. (1943). De re publica, de legibus (C. W. Keyes, Trans.). Harvard University Press. (Original work published ca. 27 BCE)
  * Schofield, M. (2020). Cicero: Political philosophy. Oxford University Press.
  * Sellers, M. N. S. (2009). The influence of Marcus Tullius Cicero on modern legal and political ideas. In Ciceroniana, Atti del Colloquium Tullianum MMVIII.
  * Molnár, G. (2010). Civil society history I: Antiquity. In H. K. Anheier & S. Toepler (Eds.), International encyclopedia of civil society (pp. 341–345). Springer.
  * Delahunty, R. J., & Yoo, J. (2012). From just war to false peace. Chicago Journal of International Law, 13(1), 1–45.

==== A Bridge from the Classical to the Christian and Modern Worlds ====

Cicero's most consequential educational role may be the one he never intended: serving as the philosophical bridge between pagan antiquity and Christian Europe. Saint Augustine attributed the beginning of his conversion to the reading of Cicero's lost Hortensius, and his engagement with Ciceronian arguments made it possible for later Christian thinkers to treat [[aristotle|Aristotle]], Socrates, and Plato as serious interlocutors rather than forbidden pagans. Cicero thereby transmitted Stoic natural-law doctrine into the Latin West, shaping Roman jurisprudence in the second and third centuries CE and, through the jurists, the legal traditions of medieval and modern Europe. Without Cicero, as more than one scholar has observed, much of ancient Greek philosophy might have been relegated to the margins of Western thought.

  * Taylor, H. (1916). Cicero: A sketch of his life and works. A. C. McClurg & Company.
  * Rothbard, M. N. (1995). An Austrian perspective on the history of economic thought (Vol. 2). Ludwig von Mises Institute.
  * Striker, G. (1995). Cicero and Greek philosophy. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 97, 53–61.
  * Powell, J. (1997). Marcus Tullius Cicero, who gave natural law to the modern world. The Freeman, 47, 41–49.

==== Cicero in the Humanist and Revolutionary Curriculum ====

From the Renaissance through the eighteenth century, Cicero sat at the heart of European schooling. Luther and his Wittenberg colleagues, committed to a curriculum built on the liberal arts, required students to read Cicero's letters and speeches and to imitate his Latin prose as a foundational intellectual discipline. The Jesuits adopted a similarly Ciceronian model in their academies, teaching his rhetoric at every level and interpreting the classical world through his eyes. By the late eighteenth century nearly every educated American had read De Oratore, and the founders of the United States referenced Cicero in their letters and diaries five times as often as they referenced Aristotle; John Adams openly aspired to be the Cicero of his age. The French revolutionaries, sharing the same classical schooling, read Cicero as enthusiastically and routinely accused their opponents of "Catilinism." Cicero's status as a novus homo who had risen through merit rather than birth reinforced his appeal to revolutionary republicans on both sides of the Atlantic.

  * Springer, C. P. (2018). Cicero in heaven. Brill.
  * Nelles, P. (1999). Historia magistra antiquitatis: Cicero and Jesuit history teaching. Renaissance Studies, 13(2), 130–172.
  * Farrell, J. M. (2011). "Above all Greek, above all Roman fame": Classical rhetoric in America during the colonial and early national periods. International Journal of the Classical Tradition, 18(3), 415–436.
  * Botein, S. (1978). Cicero as role model for early American lawyers: A case study in classical "influence." The Classical Journal, 73(4), 313–321.
  * Ricks, T. E. (2020). First principles: What America's founders learned from the Greeks and Romans and how that shaped our country. HarperCollins.
  * Parker, H. (1937). Cult of antiquity and the French revolutionaries: A study in the development of the revolutionary spirit. University of Chicago Press.

==== Liberal Education, Ethics, and the Limits of Cicero's Legacy ====

Cicero articulated what has since become the core claim of the liberal arts tradition: that students should be taught how to think rather than what to think, that instruction is most effective in small classes led by well-educated teachers, that students need free time to pursue their own interests, and that ethics belongs at the center of general education. His pedagogical convergence with [[aristotle|Aristotle]]'s Peripatetic school — dialogic teaching, virtue as the aim of learning, the imitation of great literature — helped reintroduce Aristotelian ideas to modern educators through the Ciceronian curriculum. At the same time, modern scholarship is candid about the limits of his legacy. Cicero belonged to the tiny stratum of free, wealthy men who ruled a slave society; he condoned slavery, owned the famous enslaved secretary Tiro (credited with inventing a system of shorthand) and freed him only in his will; and his democratic and civic ideals were meant for a narrow aristocratic elite. Recognizing these boundaries is inseparable from teaching Cicero today.

**1. Pedagogical inclusions:** small classes, highly educated teachers, dialogue, practical experience, breadth across subjects, free time for independent inquiry.

**2. Ethical core:** the formation of virtuous citizens through the study of ethics, literature, and rhetoric.

**3. Social exclusions:** enslaved people, most women, and the non-elite free population fell outside Cicero's imagined audience of citizen-orators.

  * Wintrol, K. (2014). The intrinsic value of the liberal arts: Cicero's example. Journal of the National Collegiate Honors Council, 431.
  * Frede, D. (2020). Constitution and citizenship: Peripatetic influence on Cicero's political conceptions in the De Re Publica. In W. Fortenbaugh & P. Steinmetz (Eds.), Cicero's knowledge of the Peripatos (pp. 77–100). Routledge.
  * Hopkins, K. (1993). Novel evidence for Roman slavery. Past & Present, 138, 3–27.
  * Badian, E. (2012). Tullius (RE 52) Tiro, Marcus. In S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, & E. Eidinow (Eds.), The Oxford classical dictionary. Oxford University Press.
  * Fernes, S. (2021). Status of older people: Ancient and biblical. In D. Gu & M. E. Dupre (Eds.), Encyclopedia of gerontology and population aging. Springer.

==== Cicero's Works ====

  * Cicero, M. T. (ca. 84 BCE). De inventione.
  * Cicero, M. T. (ca. 55 BCE). De oratore.
  * Cicero, M. T. (ca. 54–51 BCE). De re publica.
  * Cicero, M. T. (ca. 46 BCE). De optimo genere oratorum.
  * Cicero, M. T. (ca. 46 BCE). De partitionibus oratoriae.
  * Cicero, M. T. (ca. 52–43 BCE). De legibus.
  * Cicero, M. T. (ca. 45 BCE). Hortensius (fragmentary).
  * Cicero, M. T. (44 BCE). De officiis.
  * Cicero, M. T. (44–43 BCE). Philippicae.
  * Cicero, M. T. (1852). The orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero (C. D. Yonge, Trans.). G. Bell and Sons.
  * Cicero, M. T. (1913). De officiis (W. Miller, Trans.). Heinemann/Macmillan.
  * Cicero, M. T. (1943). De re publica, de legibus (C. W. Keyes, Trans.). Harvard University Press.
  * Cicero, M. T. (1999). On the commonwealth and on the laws (J. E. G. Zetzel, Ed. & Trans.). Cambridge University Press.
  * Atkins, J. W., & Bénatouïl, T. (Eds.). (2021). The Cambridge companion to Cicero's philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
  * Everitt, A. (2003). Cicero: The life and times of Rome's greatest politician. Random House.
  * Du Plessis, P. J. (2016). Cicero's law: Rethinking Roman law of the late republic. Edinburgh University Press.
  * Hawley, M. C. (2022). Natural law republicanism: Cicero's liberal legacy. Oxford University Press.
  * Volk, K. (2021). The Roman republic of letters: Scholarship, philosophy, and politics in the age of Cicero and Caesar. Princeton University Press.