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===== Carol Diane Lee (1945-) =====

===== Biography =====

Carol Diane Lee is a distinguished scholar, researcher, and activist renowned for her significant contributions to the field of education. She holds the position of Professor Emeritus at Northwestern University in the School of Education and Social Policy and in African American Studies. With a Ph.D. in education emphasizing curriculum and instruction from the University of Chicago, Lee's career spans over 50 years, during which she has made a profound impact on educational research and practice.

Lee's work is deeply rooted in challenging deficit-thinking about African American students and promoting an asset-based and ecological orientation in education. She is the founder of the Betty Shabazz International Charter School and the former director of New Concept School, an African-centered independent school in Chicago. Lee's activism and practice as an educator inform her research, where she emphasizes the importance of cultural socialization, identity processes, and culturally sustaining pedagogies.

Throughout her illustrious career, Lee has received numerous prestigious awards, including the American Educational Research Association's Distinguished Contributions to Research in Education award and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education. Her research has been supported by grants from various organizations, highlighting the significance and impact of her work in the field of education.


===== Key Contributions =====

==== Signifying as a scaffold for interpreting literature ====

Carol D. Lee's concept of Signifying has been applied in interpreting literature by serving as a scaffold for literary interpretation and understanding. Signifying, as developed by Lee, involves the use of cultural practices, language, and symbols to convey deeper meanings and messages within literary texts. This concept emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural context and background of a text to fully grasp its significance.

Researchers and practitioners have utilized Lee's concept of Signifying to explore how cultural practices and traditions influence the interpretation of literature, particularly in diverse and multicultural settings. For example, scholars have expanded Lee's theoretical framework to address the needs of various social groups, such as immigrant youth in different countries and bilingual learners. By incorporating Signifying into literary interpretation, educators can create more inclusive and culturally relevant teaching practices that resonate with students from diverse backgrounds.

Furthermore, Lee's work on Signifying in the zone of proximal development has been instrumental in guiding educators in adapting the difficulty level of content to match a learner's progress. This approach ensures that students are appropriately challenged while still being supported in their learning journey, ultimately enhancing their literary interpretation skills.

==== Cultural Modeling Theory ====

Cultural Modeling Theory, developed by Lee, focuses on the intersection of culture, learning, and development, emphasizing the importance of cultural practices and knowledge in educational settings. Lee's work highlights how individuals' interactions and relationships within culturally diverse societies influence their learning experiences and cognitive development.

One key aspect of Lee's Cultural Modeling Theory is the alignment of cultural funds of knowledge with subject matter content. By recognizing and incorporating students' cultural backgrounds, experiences, and practices into the curriculum design, educators can create more meaningful and relevant learning experiences. This approach helps bridge the gap between students' existing knowledge and the academic content, making learning more accessible and engaging.

Lee's research on Cultural Modeling Theory has shown how cultural practices, such as language use and social interactions, can be leveraged to enhance students' understanding and engagement with academic material. By building on learners' cultural funds of knowledge and connecting disciplinary constructs with their cultural practices, educators can scaffold learning and promote deeper comprehension of complex concepts.

Furthermore, Lee's emphasis on the multiplicative function of cultural funds of knowledge and transferrable skills underscores the value of incorporating diverse cultural perspectives into educational practices. This approach not only enriches students' learning experiences but also fosters a more inclusive and equitable educational environment.

==== Asset-Based and Ecological Orientation ====

Lee's work challenges deficit-thinking about African American students and emphasizes the importance of recognizing and leveraging students' assets, cultural backgrounds, and community resources in educational settings. Her research and advocacy for an asset-based orientation in education focus on shifting the narrative from viewing students through a deficit lens to recognizing and building upon their strengths and capabilities. By acknowledging and valuing students' cultural identities, languages, and experiences, educators can create more empowering and supportive learning environments that foster academic success and well-being.

Furthermore, Lee's ecological orientation in research and practice underscores the interconnectedness between individuals, their communities, and the broader social context. By considering the complex web of relationships and influences that shape students' learning experiences, educators can develop more holistic and contextually relevant interventions that address the diverse needs and challenges students face.

Through her work as an activist, educator, and researcher, Lee has demonstrated how an asset-based and ecological orientation can inform educational practices that promote equity, social justice, and community engagement. By centering the experiences and voices of marginalized students, Lee advocates for culturally sustaining pedagogies that affirm students' identities and empower them to succeed academically and personally.

==== Carol D Lee's Works ====

  * Lee, C. D. (1993). Signifying as a scaffold for literary interpretation: The pedagogical implications of an African American discourse genre. National Council of Teachers of English.
  * Lee, C. D. (1995). Signifying as a scaffold for literary interpretation. Journal of Black Psychology, 21(4), 357–381. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984950214005
  * Lee, C. D. (1995). A culturally based cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching African American high school students skills in literary interpretation. Reading Research Quarterly, 30(4), 608–630. https://doi.org/10.2307/748192
  * Lee, C. D., & Majors, Y. J. (2000). Cultural modeling’s response to Rogoff’s challenge: Under- standing apprenticeship, guided participation and participatory appropriation in a culturally responsive, subject matter specific context. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.
  * Lee, C. D. (2001). Is October Brown Chinese: A cultural modeling activity system for underachieving students. American Educational Research Journal, 38(1), 97–142.
  * Lee, C. D. (2003). Cultural modeling: CHAT as a lens for understanding instructional discourse based on African American English discourse patterns. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. Ageyev, & S. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky’s educational theory in cultural context (pp. 393–410). Cambridge University Press.
  * Lee, C. D. (2003). Why we need to re-think race and ethnicity in educational research. Educational Researcher, 32(5), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X032005003
  * Lee, C. D., Spencer, M. B., & Harpalani, V. (2003). “Every shut eye ain’t sleep”: Studying how people live culturally. Educational Researcher, 32(5), 6–13. https://doi.org/10.3102/ 0013189X032005006
  * Lee, C. D. (2008). The centrality of culture to the scientific study of learning and development: How an ecological framework in education research facilitates civic responsibility. Educational Researcher, 37(5), 267–279.
  * Lee, C. D. (2017). An ecological framework for enacting culturally sustaining pedagogy. In D. Paris & H. S. Alim (Eds.), Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world (pp. 261–274). Teachers College Press.
  * Lee, C. D. (2017). Integrating research on how people learn and learning across settings as a window of opportunity to address inequality in educational processes and outcomes. Review of Research in Education, 41(1), 88–111.
  * Lee, C. D. (2021). Reimagining American education: Possible futures: A curriculum that promotes civic ends and meets developmental needs. Phi Delta Kappan, 103(3), 54–57. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/00317217211058526
  * Lee, C. D., Nasir, N. S., Smirnov, N., & Carrington, A. (2021). Civic reasoning and discourse: Perspectives from learning and human development research. In C. D. Lee, G. White, & D. Dong (Eds.), Educating for civic reasoning & discourse (pp. 53–107). National Academy of Education.